Saeculum Christianum. Historical Writings
„Saeculum Christianum” a historical and social journal, was founded in 1994. Rev. prof. dr hab. Józef Mandziuk was the founder and, until 2013, editor-in-chief of the magazine, published by the publishing house of Cardinal Stefan Wyszynski University in Warsaw (UKSW). From the beginning, “Saeculum Christianum” was a periodical associated with the Faculty of Historical and Social Sciences of Cardinal Stefan Wyszynski University in Warsaw, appearing as a bi-annual. The journal published articles on sociological, political, and historical topics. In 2014, many changes were introduced to the structure of “Saeculum Christianum.” The Editorial Team and the Scientific Council were reorganized, inviting professors from Polish and foreign universities. In addition, the journal received a new graphic layout, changed its name to “Saeculum Christianum Historical Journal” and evolved into an annual associated with the UKSW Institute of Historical Sciences. Rev. prof. dr hab. Waldermar Graczyk is its editor-in-chief.
Uniwersytet Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie
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Report from the Academic Conference Foundations and Founders: The History of Camaldolese Monasteries in the Old Polish Period, Rytwiany, 12–13 September 2024
On 12–13 September 2024, a scholarly conference was held at the Pustelnia Złotego Lasu in Rytwiany to commemorate the 400th anniversary of the Camaldolese arrival and the foundation of the Rytwiany monastery. The conference included five thematic panels: foundations and founders, post-Tridentine reforms, monastic daily life, writing and libraries, and Camaldolese in political events. It facilitated exchange of research results on the history of Camaldolese monasteries in Poland and promoted interdisciplinary studies.
Copyright (c) 2025 Saeculum Christianum. Historical Writings https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0
Report from the Academic Conference Migrants and Migrations in Early Modern Poland, 21 May 2025
On 21 May 2025, the University of Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński in Warsaw hosted the conference “Migrants and Migrations in Early Modern Poland.” The event included two panels on domestic and cross-border migrations, as well as a doctoral session. Speakers analyzed population mobility, clergy, students, and ethnic minorities in early modern Poland, considering social, cultural, and legal aspects. The conference facilitated interdisciplinary exchange on migration phenomena in Polish history.
Report from the Nationwide Interdisciplinary Academic Conference The Piasts in the History of Poland, organized by the Institute of History of the Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University and the Central Archives of Historical Records, 3–4 June 2025
On 3–4 June 2025, the University of Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński and the Central Archives of Historical Records in Warsaw hosted the National Interdisciplinary Conference “The Piasts in Polish History.” The event marked the 1000th anniversary of the coronation of Bolesław Chrobry and Mieszko II Lambert. The conference included five thematic panels addressing the Piast dynasty’s political, cultural, and religious roles, social and cultural activities, and incorporating both primary source research and new genetic findings. Discussions fostered new perspectives for future studies on Poland’s first royal dynasty.
Przemysław Kulesza, Imperium Franków i Wikingowie Władcy, wodzowie, wojownicy oraz działania wojenne w IX wieku, Napoleon V, Oświęcim 2022, ss. 779
Imperium Franków i Wikingowie: Rulers, Leaders, Warriors and Military Actions in the 9th Century by Przemysław Kulesza is a comprehensive study on the military, political, and cultural interactions between the Franks and the Vikings. The author examines military strategies, army organization, armament, and key campaigns, including the 885 siege of Paris, as well as the daily life and customs of Northern European warriors. Combining source analysis with archaeological and iconographic evidence, the monograph offers a thorough account of early medieval Europe.
The 10th issue of Studia Hildegardiana Sariensia documents the 10th scientific conference within the XVII International Festival of Religious Creativity Fide et Amore. The volume includes primary sources, scholarly articles, reviews, literary works, and musical scores. Contributions focus on Hildegard of Bingen’s works, her morality play Ordo virtutum, the concept of humans and hierarchy of beings, musical analyses, and theological reflections. The issue also records festival events, including monodramas and choral compositions.
Piotr Tafiłowski, Od Fornovo do Cateau-Cambrésis. Dzieje wojen włoskich (1494-1559), Napoleon V, Oświęcim 2023, ss. 454
Piotr Tafiłowski’s book covers the Italian Wars (1494–1559), in which the Valois and Habsburg dynasties contested dominance over Italy. Maintaining a “French perspective,” the author examines the reigns of Charles VIII, Louis XII, Francis I, and Henry II, detailing military campaigns, leadership, and political strategies. Drawing on current scholarship, the work provides comprehensive battle accounts, biographies of commanders, and anecdotes, highlighting both the military and political dynamics of the conflict and its impact on France’s European position and Italy’s changing role.
Ks. Piotr Maroszek, „Hugo Kołłątaj jako duchowny. W 250. rocznicę papieskiej nominacji kleryka Kołłątaja na kanonię katedry krakowskiej”, Wydawnictwo Księgarnia Akademicka, Kraków 2023, 310 [2] ss.
Piotr Maroszek’s book examines Hugo Kołłątaj through the lens of his clerical career, analyzing both his ecclesiastical duties and public activity. The author traces Kołłątaj’s life chronologically—from his path to priesthood, through managing benefices and parish administration in Krzyżanowice, to political engagement and church reforms—highlighting his role in Polish Enlightenment thought. Based on extensive archival and printed sources, the work portrays Kołłątaj as a complex figure, combining clerical service with significant public and political involvement.
Maciej Waltoś, Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Nauk w Przemyślu i jego biblioteka w latach 1909-2023, Wydawca: Muzeum Narodowe Ziemi Przemyskiej, Przemyśl 2024, ss. 376.
Maciej Waltoś’s monograph presents the history of the Society of Friends of Science in Przemyśl and its library from 1909 to 2023. The author situates the institution within the broader social, political, and cultural changes of the region, analyzing the library’s creation, development, liquidation, and revival through wars, the People’s Republic of Poland, and the post-1989 period. Based on extensive archival and printed sources, the study documents the library’s role in shaping the scientific and cultural life of Przemyśl.
Michał Czerenkiewicz, Oficyna Schedlów. W świecie drukowanej książki XVII i początków XVIII wieku, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2023, ss. 734
Michał Czerenkiewicz’s monograph examines the Kraków printing house founded by Krzysztof Schedel and run by his family from 1639 to 1707. The study analyzes the printers’ biographies, the published works, and their typographic, social, and reception contexts. It documents previously unknown and lost titles, printing equipment, and interactions with readers and censorship. A key contribution is highlighting the printers’ active role in shaping publications, significantly advancing research on early modern Polish printing.
Anna Martellotti, La cucina normannoaraba alla corte di Guglielmo II di Sicilia. Indagine storico-filologica sui ricettari Normanni, Leo Olschki, Firenze 2024, pp. 383.
Anna Martellotti’s book investigates Arab-Norman cuisine at the court of William II of Sicily, analyzing two medieval cookbooks (Normanno A and B) and the earliest known Arabic cookbook, Kitāb al-Ṭabīḫ. It provides detailed analyses of recipes, spices, colorants, sugar, culinary vocabulary, and the influence of Sicilian cuisine on later European traditions. The publication includes the edition of source texts with Italian translation, highlighting cultural exchanges and the role of cuisine in the court’s cultural policy.
The Life and Iconography of Gratian: a ‘mise au point’ part 2.
In the first part of this study, I examined the limited biographical data available on Gratian (…–1145), the author of the canon law collection known as the Concordia discordantium canonum or Decretum. As we have seen, various sources agree that he was a monk, while some also state that he became Bishop of Chiusi in Tuscany at the end of his life. In this second part, I explore whether these biographical details found expression in iconography, which aspects of his life were emphasized in shaping his image, and the differing choices made by artists in Italy and north of the Alps - particularly in France – in their depictions of the Decretum’s author.
Philip IV the Fair and the Templar properties: remarks on the actions of the French state apparatus regarding the Order (1307–1314)
The actions of the French state administration related to the seizure and subsequent management of Templar properties during the trial that led to the dissolution of the order have not yet been the subject of thorough analysis. However, the surviving sources - though scattered and fragmentary - make it possible to identify certain challenges faced by Philip the Fair and his officials, which influenced the ultimate financial outcome of this large-scale undertaking. A closer examination of these issues raises further questions about the true motives behind the French monarch’s actions against the Templars - an issue that remains unresolved in scholarly research.
The Office "Prudens virgo lampadae aptata"as signum distinctivum of the liturgy of Würzburg Cathedral from the 14th to the 16th century
The author analyzes the Offices of St. Catherine of Alexandria Prudens virgo lampadae present in six sources in Würzburg. It is the Office composed of elements borrowed from other traditions, and original elements. This Office is a characteristic feature of the liturgy of Würzburg Cathedral.
The beauty of mortal things passes, but not the beauty of art. Illuminations in Cistercian manuscript codices in Poland until the end of the 15th century. Examples, characteristics, and significance
This article examines the decoration of Cistercian manuscript codices in Poland up to the end of the 15th century, in relation to the restrictions introduced by St. Bernard of Clairvaux. It demonstrates that, despite the General Chapter’s initially negative stance toward the art of illumination, such decoration was nevertheless present—albeit to varying degrees—in handwritten books. The article highlights common themes found in miniatures across both sacred and secular codices and discusses their value as archival and historical sources.
Laity and the monastery of the Canons Regular of the Blessed Virgin Mary on Piasek in Wrocław in the Middle Ages
Canons Regular, despite belonging to cloistered communities, had numerous contacts with lay people. They owed most of their wealth and income to them. Generosity on the part of the lay people was the result of the pastoral activity conducted by the monks. Despite the fact that the monastery church did not have parish status, the Canons Regular managed to attract many believers to the services, processions and other religious ceremonies they held. This also resulted in the foundation of altars in the church on Piasek by the citizens of Wrocław. A number of lay people worked for the monastery (prosecutors, village heads, owners of inns, butchers, mills, fish ponds, servants). Cooperation with the lay people was not always ideal. This was the case, for example, at the beginning of the 14th century, when, due to influential members of the monks' families, irregularities occurred in the election of the abbot or the imprisonment and death of the head of the Wrocław community. It must be said that lay people and monks were able to benefit from each other's cooperation and thanks to this symbiosis the monks from Piasek managed to survive in Wrocław until secularization in 1810.
Matrimonial matters in the Medieval Formula of Uppsala
This paper discusses issues related to the conclusion and annulment of marriages in the four dioceses of the State of the Teutonic Order in Prussia in the context of the recently published Formula of Uppsala. The Formula is an extensive collection of documents that come mainly from three diocesan consistories: Chełmno (Culm), Warmia (Ermland) and Sambia (Samland). It is particularly useful and valuable for studying marriage-related matters as no records of episcopal officials from the four dioceses in Prussia have survived until today. Research results presented in this paper refer to various legal and customary aspects that concern the conclusion and annulment of marriages, as well as everyday married life.
The first Masses of the Dominicans from Brzeg in the late Middle Ages
The issue of first Masses celebrated by newly ordained priests is poorly researched by historians. Among the sources that shed light on it are monastic account books. The article uses information about the first Masses of several monks from the Dominican monastery in Brzeg in Silesia, recorded in the income and expenditure book of this religious house from the early 16th century.
Across the border: some mutual influences on the life of the late medeval cities of Košice and Kraków
This study explores the mutual influences between two East-Central European medieval royal cities, Košice and Kraków, focusing on the adoption of specific models in urban administration and economic organization. Košice, an important trading center in the Kingdom of Hungary, maintained close ties with Kraków, the hub for merchants and capital of the Kingdom of Poland. The study analyzes migration patterns between the towns, the organization of markets, and administrative structures. It focuses on similarities between the guilds of wealthy merchants, the layout of marketplaces, and the existence of the Lohnherren office in both towns. The aim is to promote further comparative research and a deeper understanding of the interconnection of urban communities in medieval Europe.
Registers of citizenship as a source of urban migration in late medieval Bardejov
This study examines urban migration based on an analysis of the registers of citizenship in the late medieval town of Bardejov. While these records provide valuable insights, they also present several limitations. The author examines the conditions for acquiring citizenship, the place of origin, and the occupations of the individuals listed in the registers. In addition, the study focuses on the migration of scholars and traces the careers of newcomers who became town notaries in Bardejov.
On the road to safety-Part 1. The attitude of social elites towards peasant’s migrations from Croatia and Slavonia to the present- day Burgenland in the mid-16th century
The Ottoman raids on Croatian historical areas were documented as early as the beginning of the 15th century, their frequency significantly increased after the Ottomans seized the medieval Bosnian Kingdom in 1463. One significant outcome of the Ottoman incursions was the prevailing sense of insecurity and the subsequent displacement of the indigenous populace to safer regions. In the Burgenland region, the first recorded Croatian refugees emerged in the middle of the second decade of the 16th century, with the peak of immigration to Burgenland transpiring in the mid-16th century. This study is the first part of a two-part study on the experience of Croatian population emigration from Croatia and Slavonia in the mid-16th century due to the growing Ottoman threat, migrating to the territories of southwestern Hungary at the time, i.e., present-day Burgenland. These areas were significantly safer and considerably less threatened by Ottoman raiders. The focus of this study is on the attitude of the social elites of 16th-century Croatia and Slavonia towards the emigration processes, particularly regarding the departure of their subjects from their estates. Additionally, it analyzes the relationship between newly arrived Croatian refugees and the social elites, as well as other groups in southwestern Hungary during that period, in the context of their settlement and integration.
Seeking a Stable Family Life? The Return of Leonard Cox and the End of the Academic Peregrination of a Lay Humanist in Transalpine Europe
W epoce renesansu świeccy uczeni stawali wobec wyzwań odmiennych niż duchowni, zwłaszcza poza Włochami i przed reformacją. Ci, którzy pragnęli łączyć działalność naukową z życiem rodzinnym, pozostając osobami świeckimi, musieli poszukiwać mecenatu i działać na obrzeżach życia uniwersyteckiego. Artykuł ten analizuje to zjawisko na przykładzie Leonarda Coxa (ok. 1495 – ok. 1550), wędrownego humanisty pochodzenia brytyjskiego, który utrzymywał bliskie związki z Europą Środkową, w tym z uniwersytetami i szkołami w Niemczech, Polsce i na Węgrzech. Analiza doświadczeń Coxa pozwala uchwycić narodziny nowego typu uczonego oraz rolę życia rodzinnego w kształtowaniu ścieżek akademickich.
Christoph Hegendorph’s Studiorum Ratio auctore … as an example of the reception of Renaissance pedagogical thought at the Lubrański Academy
The aim of this study is to present the reception of Renaissance school pedagogical thought in Christoph Hegendorph’s 1534 treatise Studiorum Ratio auctore …, written for students of the Lubrański Academy. The analysis reveals that the primary source of inspiration was the humanist thought of Erasmus of Rotterdam, drawn from various of his pedagogical works, yet adapted to local needs.
Masquerades: A study in the culture and customs of the 18th-century magnate class (part 1)
This article is devoted to magnate masquerades as a distinct form of entertainment that gained tremendous popularity in the 18th century. The creation of a kind of “world turned upside down” reinforced among participants a sense of social equality, temporarily dissolving the barriers typical of everyday interactions. This article proposes a new approach to the study of magnate masquerades, drawing on a variety of accounts and sources - both those describing the events themselves (as found in handwritten newspapers) and private correspondence.
Wrocław Dominican nuns in the necrologies of Bohemian and Moravian convents in the 18th and early 19th century
The Dominican Convent in Wrocław was founded in 1290-1296 by Prince Henry V the Fat and from the beginning belonged to the Polish Province of the Order of Preachers. In 1706, along with other Silesian convents, it was incorporated into the Behemian Province, and between 1754 and 1810 it operated within the Silesian congregation of Blessed Ceslaus. As a result of this affiliation with the Bohemian Province, from the first half of the 18th century onward, the Wrocław Dominican nuns began to be recorded in the necrologies of Czech and Moravian monasteries - a total of 61 sisters. This article aims to present these nuns, providing not only their names but also their dates of death, ages, years of religious profession, and any additional records concerning them.
The Dissolution of Monasteries in Gdańsk in the First Half of the 19th Century – Background, Course of Events, and Consequences
The dissolution of three old-style Gdańsk monasteries was announced by the restrictions and limitations of the post-partition period. The Dominican and Carmelite monasteries were already being considered for liquidation in 1806. The Napoleonic period thwarted these intentions for some time. Ultimately, the liquidation of Gdańsk monasteries was carried out in accordance with Prussian cabinet regulations from 1810 and 1816 in the years 1817-1835. This process was monitored by the Prussian state authorities. The real estate was sold off in several stages, most intensively in the years 1824-1827 and 1837-1840. The procedure of extinguishing (extinction) and relocation of members of Gdańsk religious convents was completed earliest in relation to the Carmelite monastery (1828). The remaining convents were dissolved in 1835, but the last of the nuns, a Bridgettine, died only in 1855. The churches of the former convents were used to establish a new parish network in Gdańsk in 1840. The former convent buildings were taken over by the army and partially demolished. The new buildings erected in place of the demolished ones partly served the needs of the parish, but above all, the buildings erected here were used to support the Gdańsk garrison. The course of the dissolution of the Gdańsk convents can be considered typical for such a process, due to the specificity of the place (a large city, complicated financial status of the convents, needs of the garrison and diocesan structures), however, it was significantly extended in time.
Stanisław Lisowski (1880-1964) – curator of the Polish literary heritage
The aim of the article is to present S. Lisowski as a librarian, curator and bibliophile. A discussion of his bibliographic and provenance research is a starting point for presenting in a broader aspect his activities for the protection and registration of Polish literacy heritage. Bibliological research, in the context of political and social phenomena, creates the opportunity for comprehensive and in-depth knowledge of various mechanisms related to the cultural significance and impact of book collections, especially historical collections. The text was prepared using research methods used in historical bibliology, i.e. bibliographic; archival research and analysis and criticism of sources. Unpublished archival materials were used. Bibliographic work conducted by S. Lisowski, supported by the historical-descriptive method, research of library documentation, catalogs and inventories contributed to the reconstruction of the history of Polish book collections.
Antonina Estkowska’s (un)known charm school in the 19th century in Poznań
The education and upbringing of girls in the Polish territories were shaped not only by social and ideological transformations but also by political factors. In the Prussian partition, the character of the occupying power's educational policy had a significant impact. Educational rigor and restricted freedoms influenced the schooling and upbringing of girls enrolled in private boarding schools (pensje). This article analyses the functioning of one such institution in Poznań, run by Antonina Estkowska. To date, this topic has not been the subject of a dedicated academic study. The article draws on a range of manuscript and printed sources.
Problems of School Education in the Pages of Periodicals for Lay Catholics in the Kingdom of Poland in the Years 1905-1914
The aim of the article is to present the main issues of the debate on school education in the Catholic press in the Kingdom of Poland amidst the transformations in social life after the revolution of 1905. The query covered periodicals for lay Catholics: “Dzwonek Częstochowski,” “Myśl Katolicka,” “Polak-Katolik,” “Posiew,” “Prąd,” and “Przewodnik Katolicki.” The analysis concerns the most frequently discussed educational issues in these periodicals, including topics such as denominational versus non-denominational schools, popular education, and girls' education. Attention is given to how the social and national significance of religion was constructed in the context of education. The article discusses the directions of the debate regarding the role of religion in conceptualizing, supporting, and overseeing education within the realities of building a modern nation. Historical-pedagogical research methods and methods of press discourse analysis are employed.
The Higher Catholic School of Social Studies in Poznań (1928–1939): A Forgotten Poznań Institution
The Higher Catholic School of Social Studies in Poznań was one of only two higher education institutions in interwar Poland dedicated to training personnel for social services. It formally obtained the status of a higher education institution just two years before the outbreak of World War II, which explains its scarce presence in surviving official registers and statistics compiled by central authorities. The School trained staff for care facilities and social institutions, primarily those affiliated with the Church. Students came from across Poland, with the largest numbers from Greater Poland and Silesia. The core faculty of the School consisted of four permanent professors who taught key subjects in the curriculum, including Catholic Action, sociology, pedagogy, and law. Supplementary subjects were taught by a dozen or so teachers, including professors from the University of Poznań, seminary lecturers, as well as practitioners and social activists.
The European Moment of Polish Christian Democracy: Stronnictwo Pracy and Unia in Poland, 1943–1946
The aim of this paper is to identify the structural and ideological similarities between the Labour Party (Stronnictwo Pracy, SP) in Poland and Christian democratic parties in Western Europe (specifically in France and Italy) during the period 1943–1946. On a structural level, post-war Christian democratic parties emerged through the consolidation of pre-war Christian democratic circles and Catholic resistance organizations - many of which either did not exist before the war or operated outside traditional Christian democratic environments. On an ideological level, these newly formed parties developed programs that departed from pre-1939 frameworks, aiming instead to create a new ideological synthesis grounded in democratism and anti-communism. The defeat of the Polish Labour Party in 1946 can be interpreted as the moment when the European path of Polish Christian democracy was blocked, and the Christian democratic movement was marginalized until the arrest of the editorial board of “Tygodnik Warszawski” in 1948.
Multidisciplinary research into the topography and landscape of Roman Rider (Danilo, Šibenik, Croatia) – first results of the excavations near St. Daniel’s church and new data on the medieval cemetery at Šematorij site
The village of Danilo, located in the southern part of Šibenik-Knin County, is known for several archaeological sites where research is conducted since 1951. Among these, at the location Šematorij/Stari Šematorij the remains of a large Roman building (villa?) and thermae dating back to the 1st or early 2nd century were discovered. The ancient roots of the village are evidenced by inscriptions mentioning the Roman city of Rider (Municipium Riditarum), founded in the second half of the 1st century. Near the 18th-century church of St. Daniel, archaeologists have been finding numerous architectural elements and decorations from the interior of a monumental Roman building for years, but the precise location of it were unknown until recently. The conducted geophysical research, analysis of LiDAR data and archaeological excavations suggest that the area currently occupied by the church and the extensive cemetery might conceals the remains of the ancient center of the Roman town of Rider.
A Description of the Wedding and Marriage Feast of Prince Janusz Radziwiłł and Maria Lupulówna
The text discusses the political and cultural significance of the marriage of Janusz Radziwiłł to Maria Lupulówna in 1645, daughter of the Moldavian hospodar Vasile Lupu. The wedding, celebrated in Iași by Bishop Piotr Mohyła, was an exceptional case of a Lithuanian magnate marrying a Moldavian princess. The event had political and propagandistic dimensions, preserved in a manuscript in the Radziwiłł Archive and later published in Theatrum Europaeum. The ceremony was lavish, attended by diplomats, envoys, and illustrated accounts of the participants.
Description of the marriage and wedding of Prince Janusz Radziwiłł with Maria Lupu
Ślub księcia Janusza Radziwiłła z córką hospodara mołdawskiego Bazylego Lupula Marią w dniu 5 lutego 1645 r. był ważnym wydarzeniem politycznym i kulturalnym. Wzmacniał stosunki Rzeczypospolitej z Mołdawią w przededniu planowanej przez Władysława IV wojny przeciw Osmanom. Zarazem umacniał wątłe dotąd więzi Radziwiłłów z tym krajem. Odbił się też szerokim echem w Rzeczypospolitej jako wydarzenie o dużym splendorze. Zachowany w Archiwum Radziwiłłów opis ślubu i wesela, przygotowywany z myślą o druku w Theatrum Europaeum jest świadectwem rangi, jaką ród Radziwiłłów nadał temu mariażowi. Wartościowy również dla historyków kultury, opis małżeństwa Radziwiłła z córką hospodara jest zarazem świadectwem potęgi i dobrobytu, jakim w tym okresie cieszyła się Rzeczpospolita i – z zachowaniem proporcji – Mołdawia.
Copyright (c) 2026 Saeculum Christianum. Historical Writings https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0
The Posthumous Inventory of Father Jan Tymowski from the Year 1667
The post-mortem inventory of Father Jan Tymowski from 1655, recorded in the municipal book of Nowy Sącz, documents the estate of a clergyman from a prominent family. It includes valuables, everyday objects, and educational and religious items. Organized by storage location, the inventory illustrates 17th-century urban material culture, economic practices, and personal and family life of the clergyman.
The Statutes of the Brotherhood of St. Isidore at the Parish Church in the Town of Uście Solne [1861] from the Archbishop Jerzy Ablewicz Diocesan Archive in Tarnów
The source edition of the statutes of the St. Isidore Brotherhood at the parish of Uście Solne from 1861 documents the religious, educational, and charitable activity of the brotherhood, revived after Josephinist reforms. It defines organizational structure, rules for membership, spiritual and civic objectives, and devotional and cultural practices, including reading. The document provides insight into the social and religious life of a small-town parish in southern Lesser Poland in the 19th century.