The purpose of this paper is to present a new model of social inhibition (a) conceptualised as a dual structured construct including shyness and modesty, and (b) showing the complexity and diversity of these two social inhibition forms across various domains of psychosocial functioning (i.e., self-image, cognitive, emotional, and behavioural). Locating these two forms of social inhibition within the space of the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits enabled us to identify conceptually adjacent constructs to social inhibition and put the latter into a broad personality context. Through supplementary meta-analyses of the relations of shyness and modesty with the Big Five personality traits, we confront our theoretical proposition with existing empirical findings. Our paper implies that social inhibition might be successfully treated as a psychosocial disposition with two related and shared core elements, but distinct and differentially targeted forms—more neurotic and dysfunctional shyness and more agreeable and adaptive modesty.
social inhibition ; shyness ; modesty ; personality traits ; personality metatraits
Zasady cytowania
Afshan, A., Askari, I., & Manickam, L.S.S. (2015). Shyness, self-construal, extraversion–introversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism: A cross-cultural comparison among college students. SAGE Open, 5, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244015587559
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Anderson, C.A., & Harvey, R.J. (1988). Discriminating between problems in living: An examination of measures of depression, loneliness, shyness, and social anxiety. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 6, 482–491. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1988.6.3-4.482
Arslan, C., Bülbül, A.E., & Büyükbayraktar, Ç.G. (2017). The predictive role of emotional intelligence on personality and shyness. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 5, 1835–1842. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2017.051022
Asendorpf. J.B. (1989). Shyness as a final common pathway for two different kinds of inhibition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 481–492. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.57.3.481
Asendorpf, J.B. (1990). Beyond social withdrawal: Shyness, unsociability, and peer avoidance. Human Development, 33, 250–259. https://doi.org/10.1159/000276522
Asendorpf, J.B. (1993). Beyond temperament: A two-factorial coping model of the development of inhibition during childhood. In K.H. Rubin & J. Asendorpf (Eds.), Social withdrawal, inhibition, and shyness in childhood (pp. 265–289). Hove, UK: Erlbaum.
Asendorpf, J.B. (1994). The malleability of behavior inhibition: A study of individual developmental functions. Developmental Psychology, 30, 912–919. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.30.6.912
Asendorpf, J.B. (2010). Long-term development of shyness: Looking forward and looking backward. In K.H. Rubin & R.J. Coplan (Eds.), The development of shyness and social withdrawal (pp. 157–175). New York, NY: Guilford.
Asendorpf, J.B., & Denissen, J.J.A. (2006). Predictive validity of personality types versus personality dimensions from early childhood to adulthood: Implications for the distinction between core and surface traits. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 52, 486–513. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23096204
Asendorpf, J.B., & Wilpers, S. (1998). Personality effects on social relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1531–1544. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1531
Ashton, M.C., & Lee, K. (2001). A theoretical basis for the major dimensions of personality. European Journal of Personality, 15, 327–353. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.417
Ashton, M.C., & Lee, K. (2002). Six independent factors of personality variation: A response to Saucier. European Journal of Personality, 16, 63–75. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.433
Ashton, M.C., & Lee, K. (2005). Honesty-Humility, the Big Five, and the Five-Factor Model. Journal of Personality, 73, 1321–1354. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00351.x
Ashton, M.C., & Lee, K. (2007). Empirical, theoretical, and practical advantages of the HEXACO model of personality structure. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11, 150–166. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868306294907
Ashton, M.C., & Lee, K. (2020). Objections to the HEXACO model of personality structure—And why those objections fail. European Journal of Personality, 34, 492–510. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2242
Ashton, M.C., Lee, K., & de Vries, R.E. (2014). The HEXACO honesty-humility, agreeableness, and emotionality factors: A review of research and theory. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 18, 139–152. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314523838
Ashton, M.C., Lee, K., Perugini, M., Szarota, P., De Vries, R.E., Di Blas, L., . . . & De Raad, B. (2004). A six-factor structure of personality-descriptive adjectives: Solutions from psycholexical studies in seven languages. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 356–366. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.2.356
Ashton, M.C., Lee, K., & Son, C. (2000). Honesty as the sixth factor of personality: Correlations with Machiavellianism, primary psychopathy, and social adroitness. European Journal of Personality, 14, 359–368. https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-0984(200007/08)14:4<359::AID-PER382>3.0.CO;2-Y
Baardstu, S., Coplan, R.J., Karevold, E.B., Laceulle, O.M., & von Soest, T. (2020). Longitudinal pathways from shyness in early childhood to personality in adolescence: Do peers matter? Journal of Research on Adolescence, 30, 362–379. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12482
Babarović, T., & Šverko, I. (2013). The HEXACO personality domains in the Croatian sample. Društvena istraživanja – Časopis za opća društvena pitanja, 22, 397–411. https://doi.org/10.5559/di.22.3.01
Bach, B., & First, M.B. (2018). Application of the ICD-11 classification of personality disorders. BMC Psychiatry, 18:351. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1908-3
Back, M.D., & Kenny, D.A. (2010). The Social Relations Model: How to understand dyadic processes. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4, 855–870. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00303.x
Back, M.D., Penke, L., Schmuckle, S.C., Sachse, K., Borkenau, P., & Asendorpf. J.B. (2011). Why mate choices are not as reciprocal as we assume: The role of personality, flirting and physical attractiveness. European Journal of Personality, 25, 120–132. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.806
Baldwin, J.M. (1894). Bashfulness in children. Educational Review, 8, 434–441.
Barbey, A.K., Krueger, F., & Grafman, J. (2009). An evolutionarily adaptive neural architecture for social reasoning. Trends in Neurosciences, 32, 603–610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2009.09.001
Barford, K.A., Zhao, K., & Smillie, L.D. (2015). Mapping the interpersonal domain: Translating between the Big Five, HEXACO, and Interpersonal Circumplex. Personality and Individual Differences, 86, 232–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.05.038
Barker, T.V., Buzzell, G.A., & Fox, N.A. (2019). Approach, avoidance, and the detection of conflict in the development of behavioral inhibition. New Ideas in Psychology, 53, 2–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2018.07.001
Barstead, M.G., Smith, K.A., Laursen, B., Booth-LaForce, C., King, S., & Rubin, K.H. (2018). Shyness, preference for solitude and adolescent internalizing: The roles of maternal, paternal, and best-friend support. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 28, 488–504. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12350
Baumeister, R.F., Heatherton, T.F., & Tice, D.M. (1993). When ego threats lead to self-regulation failure: Negative consequences of high self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 141–156. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.64.1.141
Baumeister, R.F., & Jones, E.E. (1978). When self-presentation is constrained by the target's knowledge: Consistency and compensation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 608–618. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.36.6.608
Bąk, W. (2016). Personality predictors of anger. The role of FFM traits, shyness, and self-esteem. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 47, 373–382. https://doi.org/10.1515/ppb-2016-0044
Beaton, E.A., Schmidt, L.A., Schulkin, J., & Hall, G.B. (2010). Neural correlates of implicit processing of facial emotions in shy adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 755–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.06.021
Becker, P. (1999). Beyond the big five. Personality and Individual Differences, 26, 511–530. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00168-8
Beer, J.S. (2002). Implicit self-theories of shyness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1009–1024. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.4.1009
Ben-Ze'ev, A. (1993). On the virtue of modesty. American Philosophical Quarterly, 30, 235–246. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20014461
Block, J. (2001). Millennial contrarianism: The five-factor approach to personality description 5 years later. Journal of Research in Personality, 35, 98–107. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.2000.2293
Bond, M.H., Kwan, V.S.Y., & Li, C. (2000). Decomposing a sense of superiority: The differential social impact of self-regard and regard for others. Journal of Research in Personality, 34, 537−553. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.2000.2297
Borenstein, M., Higgins, J.P.T., Hedges, L.V., & Rothstein, H.R. (2017). Basics of meta-analysis: I2 is not an absolute measure of heterogeneity. Research Synthesis Methods, 8, 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1230
Bornstein, R.F. (2012). From dysfunction to adaptation: An interactionist model of dependency. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 8, 291–316. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032511-143058
Bratko, D., Vukosav, Ž., Zarevski, P., & Vranić, A. (2002). The relations of shyness and assertiveness traits with the dimensions of the five-factor model in adolescence. Review of Psychology, 9, 17–23. Retrieved from https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/5010
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2014, February 3). Conflict. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/conflict-psychology
Brown, J.D., & Marshall, M.A. (2006). The three faces of self-esteem. In M.H. Kernis (Ed.), Self-esteem issues and answers: A sourcebook of current perspectives (pp. 4–9). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Brud, P.P., Rogoza, R., & Cieciuch, J. (2020). Personality underpinnings of dark personalities: An example of Dark Triad and deadly sins. Personality and Individual Differences, 163, 110085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110085
Buecker, S., Maes, M., Denissen, J.J.A., & Luhmann, M. (2020). Loneliness and the Big Five personality traits: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Personality, 34, 8–28. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2229
Buhrmester, M.D., Blanton, H., & Swann, W.B., Jr. (2010). Implicit self-esteem: Nature, measurement, and a new way forward. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 365–385. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021341
Buss, A.H. (1980). Self-consciousness and social anxiety. San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman.
Buss, A.H. (1986). A theory of shyness. In W.H. Jones, J.M. Cheek, & S.R. Briggs (Eds.). Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 39–46). New York: Plenum.
Buss, A.H., & Plomin, R. (1984). Temperament: Early developing personality traits. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Cai, H., Sedikides, C., Gaertner, L., Wang, C., Carvallo, M., Xu, Y., . . . Jackson, L.E. (2011). Tactical self-enhancement in China: Is modesty at the service of self-enhancement in East Asian culture? Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2, 59–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550610376599
Caprara, G.V., Steca, P., Cervone, D., & Artistico, D. (2003). The contribution of self-efficacy beliefs to dispositional shyness: On social-cognitive systems and the development of personality dispositions. Journal of Personality, 71, 943–970. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.7106003
Cattell, R.B. (1965). The scientific analysis of personality. London, UK: Penguin.
Cavigelli, S.A. (2018). Behavioral inhibition in rodents: A model to study causes and health consequences of temperament. In K. Pérez-Edgar & N.A. Fox (Eds.), Behavioral inhibition: Integrating theory, research, and clinical perspectives (pp. 35–58). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98077-5_3
Chancellor, J., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2013). Humble beginnings: Current trends, state perspectives, and hallmarks of humility. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7, 819–833. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12069
Cheek, J.M., & Briggs, S.R. (1990). Shyness as a personality trait. In W.R. Crozier (Ed.), Shyness and embarrassment, perspectives from social psychology (pp. 315−337). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Cheek, J.M., & Buss, A.H. (1981). Shyness and sociability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 330–339. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.41.2.330
Cheek, J.M., Hendin, H.M., & Wink, P.M. (2013, June). An expanded version of the Hypersensitive Narcissim Scale (The Maladaptive Covert Narcissism Scale). Poster presented at the 3rd Biennial Conference of the Association for Research in Personality, Charlotte, NC.
Cheek, J.M., & Krasnoperova, E.N. (1999). Varieties of shyness in adolescence and adulthood. In L.A. Schmidt & J. Schulkin (Eds.), Extreme fear, shyness, and social phobia: Origins, biological mechanisms, and clinical outcomes (pp. 224–250). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Cheek, J.M., & Melchior, L.A. (1990). Shyness, self-esteem, and self-consciousness. In H. Leitenberg (Ed.), Handbook of social and evaluation anxiety (pp. 47–82). New York, NY: Plenum. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2504-6_3
Chen, R. (1993). Responding to compliments: A contrastive study of politeness strategies between American English and Chinese speakers. Journal of Pragmatics, 20, 49–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-2166(93)90106-Y
Chen, S.X., Bond, M.H., Chan, B., Tang, D., & Buchtel, E.E. (2009). Behavioral manifestations of modesty. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40, 603–626. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022108330992
Chiu, C.-Y., Wan, C., Cheng, S.Y.-Y., Kim, Y.-H., & Yang, Y.-Y. (2011). Cultural perspectives on self-enhancement and self-protection. In M.D. Alicke & C. Sedikides (Eds.), Handbook of self-enhancement and self-protection (pp. 425–451). New York, NY: Guilford.
Cialdini, R.B., & De Nicholas, M.E. (1989). Self-presentation by association. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 626–631. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.4.626
Cieciuch, J., & Strus, W. (2017). Two-factor model of personality. In V. Zeigler-Hill & T.K. Shackelford (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences (pp. 1–16). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2129-1
Cieciuch, J., & Strus, W. (2021). Towards a model of Personality Competencies underlying social and emotional skills: Insight from the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 711323. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.711323
Cieciuch, J., Toczyłowska-Niemiec, K., & Barbaranelli, C. (2016). Kwestionariuszowy pomiar pięciu cech osobowości dzieci dorastających. Polska adaptacja Big Five Questionnaire-Children (BFQ-C) [Questionnaire measurement of five personality traits in children and adolescents: A Polish adaptation of the Big Five Questionnaire-Children (BFQ-C)]. Psychologia Rozwojowa, 21, 73–85. https://doi.org/10.4467/20843879PR.16.011.5089
Collazzoni, A., Capanna, C., Bustini, M., Marucci, C., Prescenzo, S., Ragusa, M., Tosone, A., Di Ubaldo, V., Stratta, P., & Rossi, A. (2015). A comparison of humiliation measurement in a depressive versus non-clinical sample: A possible clinical utility. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 71, 1218–1224. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22212
Coplan, R.J., Prakash, K., O'Neil, K., & Armer, M. (2004). Do you "want" to play? Distinguishing between conflicted shyness and social disinterest in early childhood. Developmental Psychology, 40, 244–258. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.244
Coplan, R.J., Rose-Krasnor, L., Weeks, M., Kingsbury, A., Kingsbury, M., & Bullock, A. (2013). Alone is a crowd: Social motivations, social withdrawal, and socioemotional functioning in later childhood. Developmental Psychology, 49, 861–875. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028861
Coplan, R.J., & Weeks, M. (2010). Unsociability and the preference for solitude in childhood. In K.H. Rubin & R.J. Coplan (Eds.), The development of shyness and social withdrawal (pp. 64–83). New York, NY: Guilford.
Corr, P.J. (2009). Lęk i behawioralny system hamowania [Anxiety and the behavioural inhibition system]. In M. Fajkowska & B. Szymura (Eds.), Lęk. Geneza-Mechanizmy-Funkcje [Anxiety. Genesis-Mechanisms-Functions] (pp. 50–76). Warsaw, Poland: Scholar.
Corr, P.J., DeYoung, C.G., & McNaughton, N. (2013). Motivation and personality: A neuropsychological perspective. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7, 158–175. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12016
Corr, P.J., & McNaughton, N. (2008). Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and personality. In P.J. Corr (Ed.), The Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality (pp. 155–187). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Costa, A.R.L., Jesuíno, A.D.S.A., de Souza Lima, N.R., & Shu, F. (2019). Adaptation and validation of HEXACO-PI-R to a Brazilian sample adaptation of HEXACO-PI-R to Brazilian sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 147, 280–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.04.044
Costa, P.T., Jr., & McCrae, R.R. (1985). The NEO Personality Inventory manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Costa, P.T., Jr., & McCrae, R.R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO–PI–R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO–FFI) professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Costa Jr, P.T., & McCrae, R.R. (1995). Domains and facets: Hierarchical personality assessment using the Revised NEO Personality Inventory. Journal of Personality Assessment, 64, 21–50. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6401_2
Costa Jr, P.T., McCrae, R.R., & Dye, D.A. (1991). Facet scales for agreeableness and conscientiousness: A revision of the NEO Personality Inventory. Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 887–898. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(91)90177-D
Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R.K., Cooper, M.L., & Bouvrette, A. (2003). Contingencies of self-Worth in college students: Theory and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 894–908. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.894
Crocker, J., & Park, L.E. (2004). Reaping the benefits of pursuing self-esteem without the costs? Reply to DuBois and Flay (2004), Sheldon (2004), and Pyszczynski and Cox (2004). Psychological Bulletin, 130, 430–434. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.430
Crowe, M.L., Lynam, D.R., & Miller, J.D. (2018). Uncovering the structure of agreeableness from self-report measures. Journal of Personality, 86, 771–787. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12358
Crozier, W.R. (1981a). Explanations of social shyness. Current Psychological Reviews, 2, 47–59. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02684454
Crozier, W.R. (1981b). Shyness and self-esteem. British Journal of Social Psychology, 20, 220–222. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1981.tb00537.x
Crozier, W.R. (1995). Shyness and self-esteem in middle childhood. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 65, 85–95. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1995.tb01133.x
Crozier, W.R. (1999). Individual differences in childhood shyness: Distinguishing fearful and self-conscious shyness. In L.A. Schmidt & J. Schulkin (Eds.), Extreme fear, shyness, and social phobia: Origins, biological mechanisms, and clinical outcomes (pp. 14–29). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Crozier, W.R. (2010). Shyness and the development of embarrassment and the self-conscious emotions. In K.H. Rubin & R.J. Coplan (Eds.), The development of shyness and social withdrawal (pp. 42–63). New York, NY: Guilford.
Dametto, D.M., & Noronha, A.P.P. (2021). Study between personality traits and character strengths in adolescents. Current Psychology, 40, 2067–2072. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-0146-2
Darwin, C. (1872/1965). The expression of the emotions in man and animals. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Davis, D.E., & Hook, J.N. (2014). Humility, religion, and spirituality: An endpiece. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 42, 111–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/009164711404200112
Davis, D.E., Hook, J.N., Worthington, E.L., Jr., Van Tongeren, D.R., Gartner, A.L., Jennings, D.J., II, & Emmons, R.A. (2011). Relational humility: Conceptualizing and measuring humility as a personality judgment. Journal of Personality Assessment, 93, 225–234, https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2011.558871
Davis, D.E., Hook, J.N., McAnnally-Linz, R., Choe, E., & Placeres, V. (2017). Humility, religion, and spirituality: A review of the literature. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 9, 242–253. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000111
Davis, D.E., McElroy, S.E., Rice, K.G., Choe, E., Westbrook, C., Hook, J.N., Van Tongeren, D.R., DeBlaere, C., Hill, P., Placares, V., & Worthington, E.L., Jr. (2016). Is modesty a subdomain of humility? The Journal of Positive Psychology, 11, 439–446, https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2015.1117130
Davis, D.E., Worthington, E.L., Jr., & Hook, J.N. (2010). Humility: Review of measurement strategies and conceptualization as personality judgment. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 5, 243–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439761003791672
Davis, D.E., Worthington, E.L, Jr., Hook, J.N., Emmons, R.A., Hill, P.C., Bollinger, R.A., & Van Tongeren, D.R. (2013). Humility and the development and repair of social bonds: Two longitudinal studies. Self and Identity, 12, 58–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2011.636509
Deeks, J.J., Higgins, J.P.T., & Altman, D.G. (2008). Analysing data and undertaking meta-analyses. In J.P.T. Higgins & S. Green (Eds.), Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions: Cochrane Book Series (pp. 243–296). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
Denollet, J. (2000). Type D personality: A potential risk factor refined. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 49, 255–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3999(00)00177-X
Denollet, J., & Duijndam, S. (2019). The multidimensional nature of adult social inhibition: Inhibition, sensitivity and withdrawal facets of the SIQ15. Journal of Affective Disorders, 245, 569–579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.11.035
DeYoung, C.G. (2010). Mapping personality traits onto brain systems: BIS, BAS, FFFS, and beyond. European Journal of Personality, 24, 404–407. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.780
DeYoung, C.G. (2015). Cybernetic Big Five theory. Journal of Research in Personality, 56, 33–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2014.07.004
DeYoung, C.G., Peterson, J.B., & Higgins, D.M. (2002). Higher-order factors of the Big Five predict conformity: Are there neuroses of health? Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 533–552. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00171-4
DeYoung, C.G., Peterson, J.B., Seguin, J.R., & Tremblay, R.E. (2008). Externalizing behavior and the higher-order factors of the Big Five. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 947–953. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013742
DeYoung, C.G., Quilty, L.C., & Peterson, J.B. (2007). Between facets and domains: 10 Aspects of the Big Five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 880–896. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.880
DeYoung, C.G., Weisberg, Y.J., Quilty, L.C., & Peterson, J.B. (2013). Unifying the aspects of the Big Five, the Interpersonal Circumplex, and trait affiliation. Journal of Personality, 81, 465–475. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12020
Digman, J.M. (1997). Higher-order factor of the Big Five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1246–1256. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.6.1246
Du, H. & Jonas, E. (2015). Being modest makes you feel bad: Effects of the modesty norm and mortality salience on self-esteem in a collectivistic culture. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 56 , 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12175
Eisenberg, N., Shepard, S.A., Fabes, R.A., Murphy, B.C., & Guthrie, I.K. (1998). Shyness and children's emotionality, regulation, and coping: Contemporaneous, longitudinal, and across-context relations. Child Development, 69, 767–790. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06242.x
Elison, J., & Harter, S. (2007). Humiliation: Causes, correlates, and consequences. In J.L. Tracy, R.W. Robins, & J.P. Tangney (Eds.), The self-conscious emotions: Theory and research (pp. 310–329). New York, NY: Guilford.
Elshout, M., Nelissen, R.M.A., & van Beest, I. (2017). Conceptualising humiliation. Cognition and Emotion, 31, 1581–1594. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2016.1249462
Epstein, S. (2006). Conscious and unconscious self-esteem from the perspective of Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory. In M.H. Kernis (Ed.), Self-esteem issues and answers: A sourcebook of current perspectives (pp. 69–76). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Exline, J.J., & Geyer, A.L. (2004). Perceptions of humility: A preliminary study. Self and Identity, 3, 95–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/13576500342000077
Eysenck, H.J, (1956). The questionnaire measurement of neuroticism and extraversion. Revista Psicologica, 50, 113–140.
Eysenck, H.J., & Eysenck, S.B.G. (1969). Personality structure and measurement. London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Fenigstein, A., Scheier, M.F., & Buss, A.H. (1975). Public and private self-consciousness: Assessment and theory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522–527. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076760
Fisher, Z., Tipton, E., & Zhipeng, H. (2017). robumeta: Robust variance meta-regression. R package version 2.0. Retrieved from https://cran.r-project.org/package=robumeta
Fleeson, W., & Noftle, E.E. (2008). The end of the person-situation debate: An emerging synthesis in the answer to the consistency question. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2, 1667–1684. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00122.x
Fox, N.A., Henderson, H.A., Marshall, P.J., Nichols, K.E., & Ghera, M.M. (2005). Behavioral inhibition: Linking biology and behavior within a developmental framework. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 235–262. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141532
Gable, S. (2006). Approach and avoidance social motives and goals. Journal of Personality, 74, 175–222. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00373.x
Gable, S.L., & Gosnell, C.L. (2013). Approach and avoidance behavior in interpersonal relationships. Emotion Review, 5, 269–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073913477513
Garcia-Coll, C., Kagan, J., & Reznick, J.S. (1984). Behavioral inhibition in young children. Child Development, 55, 1005–1019. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130152
Gerbino, M., Cannistraro, S., & Steca, P. (2000). La misura della timidezza e della socievolezza in età adolescenziale [The measurement of shyness and sociability in adolescence]. Ricerche di Psicologia, 24, 7–21. Retrieved from https://www.francoangeli.it/Riviste/Scheda_rivista.aspx?idArticolo=15123
Gignac, G.E., & Szodorai, E.T. (2016). Effect size guidelines for individual differences researchers. Personality and Individual Differences, 102, 74–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.06.069
Gilbert, P. (2000). The relationship of shame, social anxiety and depression: The role of the evaluation of social rank. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 7, 174–189. https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-0879(200007)7:3<174::AID-CPP236>3.0.CO;2-U
Goetz, J.L., & Keltner, D. (2007). Shifting meanings of self-conscious emotions across cultures: A social-functional approach. In J.L. Tracey, R.W. Robins, & J.P. Tangney (Eds.), The self-conscious emotions: Theory and research (pp. 153–173). New York, NY: Guilford.
Goldberg, L.R. (1990). An alternative "description of personality". The Big Five factor structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1216–1229. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.59.6.1216
Goldberg, L.R. (1999). A broad-bandwidth, public domain, personality inventory measuring the lower-level facets of several five-factor models. In I. Mervielde, I. Deary, F. De Fruyt, & F. Ostendorf (Eds.), Personality psychology in Europe (Vol. 7, pp. 7–28). Tilburg, The Netherlands: Tilburg University Press.
Gosling, S.D., Rentfrow, P.J., & Swann Jr, W.B. (2003). A very brief measure of the Big-Five personality domains. Journal of Research in Personality, 37, 504–528. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566(03)00046-1
Gough, H.G., & Thorne, A. (1986). Positive, negative, and balanced shyness: Self-definitions and the reactions of others. In W.H. Jones, J.M. Cheek, & S.R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 205–225). New York, NY: Plenum.
Grande, G., Romppel, M., Michal, M., & Brähler, E. (2014). The Type D construct: Is social inhibition more than social fear? European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 30, 283–288. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000189
Gray, J.A. (1987). The psychology of fear and stress. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Gray, J.A. (1991). The neuropsychology of temperament. In J. Strelau & A. Angleitner (Eds.) Explorations in temperament: International perspectives on theory and measurement (pp. 105–128). New York, NY: Plenum.
Gray, J.A., & McNaughton, N. (2003). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the function of the septo-hippocampal system. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Greenberg, E. (1996). When insight hurts: Gestalt therapy and the narcissistically-vulnerable client. The British Gestalt Journal, 5, 113–120.
Gregg, A.P., Hart, C.M., Sedikides, C., & Kumashiro, M. (2008). Everyday conceptions of modesty: A prototype analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 978–992. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208316734
Gruenewald, T.L., Dickerson, S.L., & Kemeny, M.E. (2007). A social function for self-conscious emotions: The social preservation theory. In J.L. Tracey, R.W. Robins, & J.P. Tangney (Eds.), The self-conscious emotions: Theory and research (pp. 68–87). New York, NY: Guilford.
Grynberg, D., Gidron, Y., Denollet, J., & Luminet, O. (2012). Evidence for a cognitive bias of interpretation toward threat in individuals with a Type D personality. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 35, 95–102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-011-9351-7
Gu, Y. (1990). Politeness phenomena in modern Chinese. Journal of Pragmatics, 14, 237–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-2166(90)90082-O
Guerin, B. (1989). Social inhibition of behavior. Journal of Social Psychology, 129, 225–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1989.9711723
Gurven, M., von Rueden, C., Massenkoff, M., Kaplan, H., & Lero Vie, L. (2013). How universal is the Big Five? Testing the Five-Factor Model of personality variation among forager-farmers in the Bolivian Amazon. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104, 354–370. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030841
Hagekull, B., & Bohlin, G. (1998). Preschool temperament and environmental factors related to the Five-Factor Model of Personality in middle childhood. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 44, 194–215. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23093666
Hahn, E., Gottschling, J., & Spinath, F.M. (2012). Short measurements of personality – Validity and reliability of the GSOEP Big Five Inventory (BFI-S). Journal of Research in Personality, 46, 355–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2012.03.008
Haidt, J., & Keltner, D. (1999). Culture and facial expression: Open-ended methods find more expression and a gradient of recognition. Cognition and Emotion, 13, 225–266. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379267
Han, K. (2011). The self-enhancing function of Chinese modesty: From a perspective of social script. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 14, 258–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2011.01354.x
Harris, P.R. (1984a). The hidden face of shyness: A message from the shy for researchers and practitioners. Human Relations, 37, 1079–1093. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872678403701205
Harris, P.R. (1984b). Shyness and psychological imperialism; on the dangers of ignoring the ordinary language roots of the terms we deal with. European Journal of Social Psychology, 14, 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420140204
Harter, S., Low, S.M., & Whitesell, N.R. (2003). What have we learned from Columbine: The impact of the self-system on suicidal and violent ideation among adolescents. Journal of School Violence, 2, 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1300/J202v02n03_02
Hartling, L.M., & Luchetta, T. (1999). Humiliation: Assessing the impact of derision, degradation, and debasement. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 19, 259–278. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022622422521
Hartman, L.M. (2015). Environmental modesty: Reclaiming an ancient virtue. Journal of Religious Ethics, 43, 475–492. https://doi.org/10.1111/jore.12106
Henderson, L., & Zimbardo, P.G. (1998). Shyness. In H.S. Friedman, R. Schwartzer, R. Cohen Silver, & D. Spiegel (Eds.), Encyclopedia of mental health (Vol. 3, pp. 497–509). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Henderson, L., & Zimbardo, P.G. (1999). Developmental outcomes and clinical perspectives. In L.A. Schmidt & J. Schulkin (Eds.), Extreme fear, shyness, and social phobia: Origins, biological mechanisms, and clinical outcomes (pp. 294–305). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Hendin, H.M., & Cheek, J.M. (1997). Assessing hypersensitive narcissism: A reexamination of Murray's Narcism Scale. Journal of Research in Personality, 31, 588–599. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1997.2204
Henriksen, R.E., & Murberg, T.A. (2009). Shyness as a risk-factor for somatic complaints among Norwegian adolescents. School Psychology International, 30, 148–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034309104149
Herrmann, A., & Pfister, H.R. (2013). Simple measures and complex structures: Is it worth employing a more complex model of personality in Big Five inventories? Journal of Research in Personality, 47, 599–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2013.05.004
Higgins, J.P.T., & Thompson, S.G. (2002). Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Statistics in Medicine, 21, 1539–1558. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.1186
Hilbig, B.E., Zettler, I., Leist, F., & Heydasch, T. (2013). It takes two: Honesty–Humility and Agreeableness differentially predict active versus reactive cooperation. Personality and Individual Differences, 54, 598–603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.11.008
Hofstee, W.K.B., de Raad, B., & Goldberg, L.R. (1992). Integration of the big five and circumplex approaches to trait structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 146–163. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.63.1.146
Hunter, J.E., & Schmidt, F.L. (2004). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Jang, K.L., Livesley, W.J., Riemann, R., Vernon, P.A., Hu, S., Angleitner, A., . . . & Hamer, D.H. (2001). Covariance structure of neuroticism and agreeableness: A twin and molecular genetic analysis of the role of the serotonin transporter gene. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 295–304. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.81.2.295
Jones, W.H., Briggs, S.R., & Smith, T.G. (1986). Shyness: Conceptualization and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 629–639. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.3.629
Kagan, J. (2001). Temperamental contributions to affective and behavioral profiles in childhood. In S.G. Holman & P.M. DiBartolo (Eds.), From social anxiety to social phobia: Multiple perspectives (pp. 216–234). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Kagan, J. (2018). The history and theory of behavioral inhibition. In K. Pérez-Edgar & N.A. Fox (Eds.), Behavioral inhibition: Integrating theory, research, and clinical perspectives (pp. 1–15). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98077-5_1
Kagan, J., Reznick, J.S., Clarke, C., Snidman, N., & Garcia-Coll, C. (1984). Behavioral inhibition toward the unfamiliar. Child Development, 55, 2212–2225. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129793
Kagan, J., Reznick, J.S., & Snidman, N. (1987). The physiology and psychology of behavioral inhibition in children. Child Development, 58, 1459–1473. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130685
Kagan, J., Reznick, J.S., & Snidman, N. (1988). Biological bases of childhood shyness. Science, 240, 167–171. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3353713
Kajonius, P.J., & Dåderman, A.M. (2014). Exploring the relationship between Honesty-Humility, the Big Five, and liberal values in Swedish students. Europe's Journal of Psychology, 10, 104–117. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v10i1.672
Kamath, M., & Kanekar, S. (1993). Loneliness, shyness, self-esteem, and extraversion. Journal of Social Psychology, 133, 855–857. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1993.9713949
Karau, S.J., & Williams, K.D. (1993). Social loafing: A meta-analytic review and theoretical integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 681–706. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.4.681
Karevold, E., Ystrom, E., Coplan, R.J., Sanson, A.V., & Mathiesen, K.S. (2012). A prospective longitudinal study of shyness from infancy to adolescence: Stability, age-related changes, and prediction of socio-emotional functioning. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 1167–1177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9635-6
Kealy, D., & Rasmussen, B. (2012). Veiled and vulnerable: The other side of grandiose narcissism. Clinical Social Work Journal, 40, 356–365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-011-0370-1
Kendler, K.S., Hettema, J.M., Butera, F., Gardner, C.O., & Prescott, C.A. (2003). Life event dimensions of loss, humiliation, entrapment, and danger in the prediction of onsets of major depression and generalized anxiety. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 789–796. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.60.8.789
Kentle, R.L. (2002). Adjectives, phrases, and sentences: Intracorrelation of three five-factor personality inventories. Psychological Reports, 91, 1151–1154. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2002.91.3f.1151
Kernis, M.H., & Goldman, B.M. (2006). Assessing stability of self-esteem and contingent self-esteem. In M.H. Kernis (Ed.), Self-esteem issues and answers: A sourcebook of current perspectives (pp. 77–85). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Klein, D.C. (1991). The humiliation dynamic: An overview. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 12, 93–121. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02015214
Klein, D.C. (1992). Managing humiliation. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 12, 255–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02015513
Klein, D.N., & Mumper, E.E. (2018). Behavioral inhibition as a precursor to psychopathology. In K. Pérez-Edgar & N.A. Fox (Eds.), Behavioral inhibition: Integrating theory, research, and clinical perspectives (pp. 283–307). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98077-5_13
Knight, P.A., & Nadel, J.L. (1986). Humility revisited: Self-esteem, information search, and policy consistency. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 38, 196–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(86)90016-6
Kobayashi, C. & Greenwald, A.G. (2003). Implicit-explicit differences in self-enhancement for Americans and Japanese. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 34, 522–541. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022103257855
Kochanska, G. (1991). Patterns of inhibition to the unfamiliar in children of normal and affectively ill mothers. Child Development, 62, 250–263. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131001
Kochanska, G., Coy, K.C., & Murray, K.Y. (2001) The development of self-regulation in the first four years of life. Child Development, 72, 1091–1111. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00336
Kochanska, G., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (1992). Inhibition in toddlerhood and the dynamics of the child's interaction with an unfamiliar peer at age five. Child Development, 63, 325–335. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1992.tb01630.x
Kret, M.E., Denollet, J., Grèzes, J., & de Gelder, B. (2011) The role of negative affectivity and social inhibition in perceiving social threat: An fMRI study. Neuropsychologia, 49, 1187–1193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.02.007
Kruse, E., Chancellor, J., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2017) State humility: Measurement, conceptual validation, and intrapersonal processes. Self and Identity, 16, 399–438. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2016.1267662
Kwiatkowska, M.M. (2018, April). To be shy not to get hurt: Investigating the relation of narcissism and shyness. Talk presented at International Conference "Between Narcissism and Entitlement: Self-Enhancement in a Cross-Cultural Perspective," Warsaw, Poland.
Kwiatkowska, M.M., Kwiatkowska, K., & Rogoza, R. (2016). Polish adaptation of the Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness scale and a significance of shyness in the context of personality traits and metatraits. Studia Psychologiczne, 54, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.2478/V1067-010-0156-7
Kwiatkowska, M.M., & Rogoza, R. (2019a). A modest proposal to link shyness and modesty: Investigating the relation within the framework of Big Five personality traits. Personality and Individual Differences, 149, 8–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.05.026
Kwiatkowska, M.M., & Rogoza, R. (2019b). Shy teens and their peers: Shyness in respect to basic personality traits and social relations. Journal of Research in Personality, 79, 130–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2019.03.005
La Sala, L., Skues, J., & Grant, S. (2014). Personality traits and Facebook use: The combined/interactive effect of extraversion, neuroticism and conscientiousness. Social Networking, 3, 211–219. https://doi.org/10.4236/sn.2014.35026
Langston, C.A., & Cantor, N. (1988). Social anxiety and social constraint: When making friends is hard. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 649–661. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.4.649
Latané, B., & Darley, J.M. (1968). Group inhibition of bystander intervention in emergencies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 215–221. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0026570
Lawrence, B., & Bennett, S. (1992). Shyness and education: The relationship between shyness, social class and personality variables in adolescents. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 62, 257–263. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1992.tb01019.x
Leary, M.R. (1986). Affective and behavioral components of shyness: Implications for theory, measurement, and research. In W.H. Jones, J.M. Cheek, & S.R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 27–38). New York, NY: Plenum.
Le Corff, Y., & Busque-Carrier, M. (2016). Structural validity of the NEO Personality Inventory 3 (NEO-PI-3) in a French-Canadian sample. International Journal of Arts & Sciences, 9, 449–460. Retrieved from https://www.universitypublications.net/ijas/0903/pdf/V6Z154.pdf
Lee, K., & Ashton, M.C. (2004). Psychometric properties of the HEXACO personality inventory. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 329–358. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr3902_8
Lerner, E., Teitelbaum, J., & Meehan, K.B. (2020). Avoidant Personality Disorder. In V. Zeigler-Hill & T.K. Shackelford (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences (pp. 351–358). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_300231
Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science: Selected theoretical papers. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
Lewis, H.B. (1987). Shame and the narcissistic personality. In D.L. Nathanson (Ed.), The many faces of shame (pp. 93–132). New York, NY: Guilford.
Lewis, M. (2016). Self-conscious emotions: Embarrassment, pride, shame, guilt, and hubris. In L.F. Barrett, M. Lewis, & J.M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 792–814). New York, NY: Guilford.
Litwinski, L. (1950). Constitutional shyness; its active and passive forms. The Journal of General Psychology, 42, 299–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.1950.9920161
Littman-Ovadia, H., & Lavy, S. (2012). Character strengths in Israel: Hebrew adaptation of the VIA inventory of strengths. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 28, 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000089
Liu, J., Bowker, J.C., Coplan, R.J., Yang, P., Li, D., & Chen, X. (2019). Evaluating links among shyness, peer relations, and internalizing problems in Chinese young adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 29, 696–709. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12406
Lynam, D.R., Crowe, M.L., Vize, C., & Miller, J.D., (2020, April 22). Little evidence that Honesty-Humility lives outside of FFM Agreeableness [Peer commentary on the paper "Objections to the HEXACO model of personality structure—And why those objections fail," by M.C. Ashton & K. Lee, European Journal of Personality]. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/nvxpb
Mann, L., Feddes, A.R., Doosje, B., & Fischer, A.H. (2015). Withdraw or affiliate? The role of humiliation during initiation rituals. Cognition and Emotion, 30, 80–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2015.1050358
Markus, H.R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224–253. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.98. 2.224
Marriott, T.C., & Buchanan, T. (2014). The true self online: Personality correlates of preference for self-expression online, and observer ratings of personality online and offline. Computers in Human Behavior, 32, 171–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.11.014
Maslow, A.H. (1939). Dominance, personality, and social behavior in women. The Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 3–39. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1939.9713343
Maslow, A.H. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
McCarty, M.K., & Karau, S.J. (2017). Social inhibition. In S.G. Harkins, K.D. Williams, & J.M. Burger (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of social influence (pp. 165–181). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859870.013.9
McCrae, R.R., & Costa, P.T. Jr. (1989). The structure of interpersonal traits: Wiggins's circumplex and the five-factor model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 586–595. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.4.586
McCrae, R.R., & Costa, P.T., Jr. (2003). Personality in adulthood: A Five-Factor Theory perspective (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203428412
McCrae, R.R., & Costa, P.T., Jr. (2008). The five-factor theory of personality. In O.P. John, R.W. Robins, & L.A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 159–181). New York, NY: Guilford.
McCrae, R.R., Costa Jr, P.T., Del Pilar, G.H., Rolland, J.P., & Parker, W.D. (1998). Cross-cultural assessment of the five-factor model: The Revised NEO Personality Inventory. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 29, 171–188. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022198291009
McCroskey, J.C., Heisel, A.D., & Richmond, V.P. (2001). Eysenck's BIG THREE and communication traits: Three correlational studies. Communication Monographs, 68, 360–366. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750128068
McDougall, W. (1963). An introduction to social psychology (31st ed.). London, UK: Methuen.
McElroy, S.E., Rice, K.G., Davis, D.E., Hook, J.N., Hill, P.C., Worthington, E.L., Jr., & Van Tongeren, D.R. (2014). Intellectual humility: Scale development and theoretical elaborations in the context of religious leadership. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 42, 19–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/009164711404200103
McElroy-Heltzel, S.E., Davis, D.E., DeBlaere, C., Worthington, E.L., Jr., & Hook, J.N. (2019). Embarrassment of riches in the measurement of humility: A critical review of 22 measures. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 14, 393–404. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1460686
Menon, U., & Shweder, R.A. (1994). Kali's tongue: Cultural psychology, cultural consensus and the meaning of "shame" in Orissa, India. In H. Markus & S. Kitayama (Eds.), Culture and the emotions (pp. 241–284). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Miller, J.D., Gaughan, E.T., Maples, J., & Price, J. (2011). A comparison of agreeableness scores from the Big Five Inventory and the NEO PI-R: Consequences for the study of narcissism and psychopathy. Assessment, 18, 335–339. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191111411671
Miller, R.S. (1995). On the nature of embarrassability: Shyness, social evaluation, and social skill. Journal of Personality, 63, 315–339. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1995.tb00812.x
Miller, R.S. (1996). Embarrassment: Poise and peril in everyday life. New York, NY: Guilford.
Miller, R.S. (2001). Shyness and embarrassment compared: Siblings in the service of social evaluation. In W.R. Crozier & L.E. Alden, (Eds.), International handbook of social anxiety: Concepts, research and interventions relating to the self and shyness (pp. 281–300). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
Miller, R.S. (2007). Is embarrassment a blessing or a curse? In J.L. Tracy, R.W. Robins, & J.P. Tangney (Eds.), Self-conscious emotions (pp. 245–262). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Mosher, D.L., & White, B.B. (1981). On differentiating shame and shyness. Motivation and Emotion, 5, 61–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00993662
Murberg, T.A. (2009). Shyness predicts depressive symptoms among adolescents: A prospective study. School Psychology International, 30, 507–519. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034309107065
Musek, J. (2007). A general factor of personality: Evidence of the Big One in the five-factor model. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 1213–1233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2007.02.003
Nelson, L.J., Rubin, K.H., & Fox, N.A. (2005). Social withdrawal, observed peer acceptance, and the development of self-perceptions in children ages 4 to 7 years. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 20, 185–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2005.04.007
Oshio, A., Abe, S., Cutrone, P., & Gosling, S.D. (2013). Big Five content representation of the Japanese version of the Ten-Item Personality Inventory. Psychology, 4, 924–929. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2013.412133
Otten, M., & Jonas , K.J. (2014). Humiliation as an intense emotional experience: Evidence from the electro-encephalogram. Social Neuroscience, 9, 23–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2013.855660
Ørnfjord, M. (2018). The Norwegian HEXACO-PI-R: Psychometric properties and relationships with the Big Five Inventory. Scandinavian Psychologist, 5, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.15714/scandpsychol.5.e15
Paulhus, D.L., & Morgan, K.L. (1997). Perceptions of intelligence in leaderless groups: The dynamic effects of shyness and acquaintance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 581–591. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.581
Paulhus, D.L., & Trapnell, P.D. (1998). Typological measures of shyness: Additive, interactive, and categorical. Journal of Research in Personality, 32, 183–201. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1998.2215
Penrod, J. (2001). Refinement of the concept of uncertainty. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 34, 238–245. http://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2001.01750.x
Perls, F.S. (1969). Gestalt Therapy Verbatim. Lafayette, CA: Real People Press.
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M.E.P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Pines, A., & Zimbardo, P.G. (1978). The personal and cultural dynamics of shyness: A comparison between Israelis, American Jews and Americans. Journal of Psychology and Judaism, 3, 81–101.
Poole, K.L., & Schmidt, L.A. (2020). Adaptive shyness: A developmental perspective. In L.A. Schmidt & K.L. Poole (Eds.), Adaptive Shyness: Multiple Perspectives on Behavior and Development (pp. 25–40). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38877-5_2
Poole, K.L., Tang, A., & Schmidt, L.A. (2018). The temperamentally shy child as the social adult: An exemplar of multifinality. In K. Pérez-Edgar & N.A. Fox (Eds.), Behavioral inhibition: Integrating theory, research, and clinical perspectives (pp. 185–212). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98077-5
Poole, K.L., Van Lieshout, R.J., & Schmidt, L.A. (2017). Shyness and sociability beyond emerging adulthood: Implications for understanding the developmental sequelae of shyness subtypes. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 36, 316–334. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2017.36.4.316
Rammstedt, B., & John, O.P. (2007). Measuring personality in one minute or less: A 10-item short version of the Big Five Inventory in English and German. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 203–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2006.02.001
Revelle, W., & Wilt, J. (2013). The General Factor of Personality: A general critique. Journal of Research in Personality, 47, 493–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jrp.2013.04.012
Reznick, J.S., Kagan, J., Snidman, N., Gersten, M., Baak, K., & Rosenberg, A. (1986). Inhibited and uninhibited children: A follow-up study. Child Development, 57, 660–680. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130344
Rodriguez Mosquera, P.M., Fischer, A.H., Manstead, A.S.R., & Zaalberg, R. (2008). Attack, disapproval, or withdrawal? The role of honour in anger and shame responses to being insulted. Cognition and Emotion, 22, 1471–1498. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930701822272
Rogoza, R., Cieciuch, J., & Strus, W. (2021). A three-step procedure for analysis of circumplex models: An example of narcissism located within the circumplex of personality metatraits. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 109775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109775
Rogoza, R., Cieciuch, J., Strus, W., & Baran, T. (2019). Seeking a common framework for research on narcissism: An attempt to integrate the different faces of narcissism within the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits. European Journal of Personality, 33, 437–455. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2206
Rogoza, R., Kowalski, C.M., & Schermer, J.A. (2019). Dark Triad traits within the framework of the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits model. Journal of Individual Differences, 40, 168–176. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000289
Rogoza, R., Żemojtel-Piotrowska, M., Kwiatkowska, M.M., & Kwiatkowska, K. (2018). The bright, the dark and the blue face of narcissism: The spectrum of narcissism in its relations to the metatraits of personality, self-esteem, and nomological network of shyness, loneliness and empathy. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 343. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00343
Role, M. (2012). Personality, sexual attitudes, and unrestricted sociosexual behavior in college women. [Doctoral dissertation, Wellesley College]. Wellesley College Digital Scholarship and Archive. Retrieved from https://repository.wellesley.edu/thesiscollection/62
Rosch, E. (1975). Cognitive representations of semantic categories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 192–233. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.104.3.192
Rossetti, M.C., Tosone, A., Stratta, P., Collazzoni, A., Santarelli, V., Guadagni, E., Rossi, R., & Rossi, A. (2017). Different roles of resilience in depressive patients with history of suicide attempt and no history of suicide attempt. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria, 39, 216–219. https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2016-2045
Rothbart, M.K. (1989). Temperament and development. In G.A. Kohnstamm, J.A. Bates, & M.K. Rothbart (Eds.), Temperament in childhood (pp. 187–247). New York, NY: Wiley.
Rothbart, M.K., & Derryberry, D. (1981). Development of individual differences in temperament. In M. Lamb & A. Brown, Advances in developmental psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 37–86). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Rubin, K.H., Barstead, M.G., Smith, K.A., & Bowker, J.C. (2018). Peer relations and the behaviorally inhibited child. In K. Pérez-Edgar & N.A. Fox (Eds.), Behavioral inhibition: Integrating theory, research, and clinical perspectives (pp. 157–184). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98077-5_8
Rubin, K.H., Coplan, R.J., & Bowker, J.C. (2009). Social withdrawal in childhood. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 141–171. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163642
Rubin, K.H., Stewart, S.L., & Coplan, R.J. (1995). Social withdrawal in childhood: Conceptual and empirical perspectives. Advances in Clinical Child Psychology, 17, 157–196.
Sato, E., Matsuda, K., & Carducci, B.J. (2018). A factor analytical investigation of the Japanese translation of the Cheek-Buss Shyness Scale in support of the three-component model of shyness. Personality and Individual Differences, 124, 160–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.12.006
Saucier, G., & Srivastava, S. (2015). What makes a good structural model of personality? Evaluating the Big Five and alternatives. In M. Mikulincer & P.R. Shaver (Eds.), APA Handbook of Personality and Social Psychology (Vol. 4. Personality Processes and Individual Differences, pp. 283–305). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Saucier, G., Thalmayer, A.G., Payne, D.L., Carlson, R., Sanogo, L., Ole-Kotikash, L., Church, A.T., Katigbak, M.S., Somer, O., Szarota, P., Szirmak, Z., & Zhou, H. (2014). A basic bivariate structure of personality attributes evident across nine languages. Journal of Personality, 82, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12028
Schlenker, B.R., & Leary, M.R. (1982). Social anxiety and self-presentation: A conceptualization and model. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 641–669. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.92.3.641
Schmidt, L.A., & Fox, N.A. (1995). Individual differences in young adults' shyness and sociability: Personality and health correlates. Personality and Individual Differences, 19, 455–462. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(95)00083-I
Schmidt, L.A., & Fox, N.A. (1999). Conceptual, biological, and behavioral distinctions among different categories of shy children. In L.A. Schmidt & J. Schulkin (Eds.), Extreme fear, shyness, and social phobia: Origins, biological mechanisms, and clinical outcomes (pp. 47–66). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Schmidt, L.A., Polak, C.P., & Spooner, A.L. (2005). Biological and environmental contributions to childhood shyness: A diathesis-stress model. In W.R. Crozier & L.E. Alden (Eds.), The essential handbook of social anxiety for clinicians (pp. 33–55). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
Schmidt, L.A., & Poole, K.L. (2019). On the bifurcation of temperamental shyness: Development, context, and neoteny. New Ideas in Psychology, 53, 13–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2018.04.003
Schmidt, L.A., & Robinson, T.N., Jr. (1992). Low self-esteem in differentiating fearful and self-conscious forms of shyness. Psychological Reports, 70, 255–257. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1992.70.1.255
Schmitt, D.P., Allik, J., McCrae, R.R., & Benet-Martinez, V. (2007). The geographic distribution of Big Five personality traits: Patterns and profiles of human self-description across 56 nations. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38, 173–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022106297299
Schwartz, S.H., Cieciuch, J., Vecchione, M., Davidov, E., Fischer, R., Beierlein, C., . . . Konty, M. (2012). Refining the theory of basic individual values. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 663–688. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029393
Sedikides, C., Campbell, W.K., Reeder, C., Elliot, A.J., & Gregg, A.P. (2002). Do others bring out the worst in narcissists? The "Others Exist for Me" illusion. In Y. Kashima, M. Foddy, & M. Platow (Eds.), Self and identity: Personal, social, and symbolic (pp. 103–123). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Sedikides, C., Gaertner, L., & Cai, H. (2015). On the panculturality of self-enhancement and self-protection motivation: The case for the universality of self-esteem. Advances in Motivation Science, 2, 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.adms.2015.04.002
Sedikides, C., Gregg, A.P., & Hart, C.M. (2007). The importance of being modest. In C. Sedikides & S. Spencer (Eds.), The self: Frontiers in social psychology (pp. 163–184). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Shadish, W.R., & Haddock, C.K. (2009). Combining estimates of effect size. In H. Cooper, L. V. Hedges, & J.C. Valentine (Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis and meta- analysis (pp. 257–277). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
Shaver, P. R., & Mikulincer, M. (2011). An attachment-theory framework for conceptualizing interpersonal behavior. In L. M. Horowitz & S. Strack (Eds.), Handbook of interpersonal psychology: Theory, research, assessment, and therapeutic interventions (pp. 17–35). John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
Shaver, P., Schwartz, J., Kirson, D., & O'Connor, C. (1987). Emotion knowledge: Further exploration of a prototype approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1061–1086. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1061
Shi, Y., Sedikides, C., Cai, H., Liu, Y., & Yang, Z. (2017). Disowning the self: The cultural value of modesty can attenuate self-positivity, The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 70, 1023–1032. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2015.1099711
Simonds, J. (2006). The role of reward sensitivity and response: Execution in childhood extraversion. [Doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon]. Retrieved from https://research.bowdoin.edu/rothbart-temperament-questionnaires/files/2016/09/Simonds_Dissertation_2006.pdf
Simonelli, A., & Parolin, M. (2020). Dependent Personality Disorder. In V. Zeigler-Hill & T.K. Shackelford (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences (pp. 1048–1059). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_578
Smillie, L.D., Pickering, A.D., & Jackson, C.J. (2006). The new Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory: Implications for personality measurement. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 320–335. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_3
Spitzer, M., Fischbacher, U., Herrnberger, B., Grön, G., & Fehr, E. (2007). The neural signature of social norm compliance. Neuron, 56, 185–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2007.09.011
Stankov, L. (2013) Depression and life satisfaction among European and Confucian adolescents. Psychological Assessment, 25, 1220–1234. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033794
Strelau, J. (2012). Psychologia temperamentu [The psychology of temperament]. Warsaw, Poland: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
Strus, W., & Cieciuch, J. (2017). Towards a synthesis of personality, temperament, motivation, emotion and mental health models within the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits. Journal of Research in Personality, 66, 70–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2016.12.002
Strus, W., & Cieciuch, J. (2019). Are the questionnaire and the psycho-lexical Big Twos the same? Towards an integration of personality structure within the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits. International Journal of Personality Psychology, 5, 18–35. https://doi.org/10.21827/ijpp.5.35594
Strus, W., & Cieciuch, J. (2021). The circumplex of personality metatraits and the HEXACO model: Toward refinement and integration. Journal of Personality, 89, 803–818. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12616
Strus, W., Cieciuch, J., & Rowiński, T. (2014). The Circumplex of Personality Metatraits: A synthesizing model of personality based on the Big Five. Review of General Psychology, 18, 273–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000017
Szmajke, A. (1999). Autoprezentacja. Maski, pozy, miny [Self-presentation. Masks, poses, facial expressions]. Olsztyn, Poland: Ursa Consulting.
Tangney, J.P. (1990). Assessing individual differences in proneness to shame and guilt: Development of the Self-Conscious Affect and Attribution Inventory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.1.102
Tangney, J.P. (2000). Humility: Theoretical perspectives, empirical findings and directions for future research. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19, 70–82. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2000.19.1.70
Tangney, J.P., & Dearing, R.L. (2002). Emotions and social behavior. Shame and guilt. New York, NY: Guilford. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412950664.n388
Tangney, J.P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D.J. (2007). Moral emotions and moral behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 345–372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145
Tanner-Smith, E.E., & Tipton, E. (2014). Robust variance estimation with dependent effect sizes: Practical considerations including a software tutorial in Stata and SPSS. Research Synthesis Methods, 5, 13–30. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1091
Tanner-Smith, E.E., Tipton, E., & Polanin, J.R. (2016). Handling complex meta-analytic data structures using robust variance estimates: a tutorial in R. Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology, 2, 85–112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40865-016-0026-5
Thomaes, S., Stegge, H., Olthof, T., Bushman, B.J., & Nezlek, J.B. (2011). Turning shame inside-out: "humiliated fury" in young adolescents. Emotion, 11, 786–793. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023403
Tice, D.M., Butler, J.L., Muraven, M.B., & Stillwell, A.M. (1995). When modesty prevails: Differential favorability of self-presentation to friends and strangers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1120–1138. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1120
Tiedens, L.Z., & Linton, S. (2001). Judgment under emotional certainty and uncertainty: The effects of specific emotions on information processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 973–988. https://doi.org/10.1037//OO22-3514.81.6.973
Timmerman, T.A. (2006). Predicting turnover with broad and narrow personality traits. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 14, 392–399. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2389.2006.00361.x
Triche, A.B. (2006). Characteristics of shy and socially phobic individuals. [Doctoral dissertation, Boston College]. Chestnut Hill, MA: Boston College Libraries. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/2345/373
Vaidya, J.G., Gray, E.K., Haig, J.R., Mroczek, D.K., & Watson, D. (2008). Differential stability and individual growth trajectories of Big Five and affective traits during young adulthood. Journal of Personality, 76, 267–304. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00486.x
Vassend, O., & Skrondal, A. (2011). The NEO personality inventory revised (NEO-PI-R): Exploring the measurement structure and variants of the five-factor model. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 1300–1304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.03.002
Vonk, R. (2002). Self-serving interpretations of flattery: Why ingratiation works. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 515–526. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.4.515
Wakabayashi, A. (2014). A sixth personality domain that is independent of the Big Five domains: The psychometric properties of the HEXACO Personality Inventory in a Japanese sample. Japanese Psychological Research, 56, 211–223. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12045
Walker, J., & Knauer, V. (2011). Humiliation, self-esteem and violence. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology, 22, 724–741. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2011.617542
Weidman, A.C., Cheng, J.T., & Tracy, J.L. (2018). The psychological structure of humility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 114, 153–178. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000112
Weiss, H.M., & Knight, P.A. (1980). The utility of humility: Self-esteem, information search, and problem-solving efficiency. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 25, 216–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(80)90064-1
Weissman, D.H., Perkins, A.S., & Woldorff, M.G. (2008). Cognitive control in social situations: A role for the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Neuroimage, 40, 955–962. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.12.021
West, N.M. (2006). The relationship among personality traits, character strengths, and life satisfaction in college students. [Doctoral dissertation, University of Tennessee]. Knoxville, TN: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. Retrieved from https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss/4271
Whetstone, M.R., Okun, M.A., & Cialdini, R.B. (1992, June). The Modest Responding Scale. Paper presented at the convention of the American Psychological Society, San Diego, CA.
Wiggins, J.S. (1995). Interpersonal Adjective Scales professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Wiggins, J.S., Trapnell, P., & Phillips, N. (1988). Psychometric and geometric characteristics of the Revised Interpersonal Adjective Scales (IAS-R). Multivariate Behavioral Research, 23, 517–530. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr2304_8
Wink, P. (1991). Two faces of narcissism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 590–597. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.4.590
Wood, J.V. (1989). Theory and research concerning social comparisons of personal attributes. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 231–248. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.106.2.231
World Health Organization. (1992). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. Geneva, Switzerland: Author.
World Health Organization. (2018). ICD-11, the 11th Revision of the International Classification of Diseases. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/
Worthington, E.L., Jr., & Allison, S.T. (2017). Heroic humility: What the science of humility can say to people raised on self-focus. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Xu, Y., Farver, J.A.M., Chang, L., Zhang, Z., & Yu, L. (2007). Moving away or fitting in? Understanding shyness in Chinese children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 53, 527–556. https://doi.org/10.1353/mpq.2008.0005
Xu, Y., Farver, J.A.M., Yu, L., & Zhang, Z. (2009). Three types of shyness in Chinese children and the relation to effortful control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 1061–1073. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016576
Xu, Y., Zhang, L., & Hee, P. (2014). Parenting practices and shyness in Chinese children. In H. Selin (Ed.), Parenting across cultures: Childrearing, motherhood and fatherhood in non-western cultures (Vol. 7. Science across cultures: The history of non-western science, pp. 13–24). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7503-9_2
Zaborowski, Z. (1987). A theory of internal and external self-consciousness. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 18, 51–61.
Zaborowski, Z. (2000). Teoria treści i form samoświadomości [Contents and forms theory of self-awareness]. Warsaw, Poland: Żak.
Zaborowski, Z., & Ślaski S. (2004). Contents and forms theory of self-awareness. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 3, 99–119. https://doi.org/10.2190/TCX3-E1U1-5G7M-U2V1
Zawadzki, B. (2018). The location of personality disorders in the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits. Annals of Psychology, 20, 493–512. https://doi.org/10.18290/rpsych.2017.20.2-7en
Zeigler-Hill, V., Clark, C.B., & Beckman, T.E. (2011). Fragile self-esteem and the Interpersonal Circumplex: Are feelings of self-worth associated with interpersonal style? Self and Identity, 10, 509–536. http://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2010.497376
Zheng, C., Wu, Q., Jin, Y., & Wu, Y. (2017). Regional gray matter volume is associated with trait modesty: Evidence from voxel-based morphometry. Scientific Reports, 7:14920. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-15098-x
Ziller, R.C., & Rorer, B.A. (1985). Shyness-environment interaction: A view from the shy side through auto-photography. Journal of Personality, 53, 626–639. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1985.tb00387.x
Zimbardo, P.G. (1977). Shyness: What it is, what to do about it. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Zimbardo, P.G., Pilkonis, P.A., & Norwood, R.M. (1974). The silent prison of shyness. Stanford, CA: Stanford University.
Total abstract views : 126
PDF Downloads : 145
Affiliation
Instytut Psychologii, Uniwersytet Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie PolandAffiliation
Instytut Psychologii, Uniwersytet Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie Poland